Frontrunners but different games? Comparing Catalan and Basque paradiplomacy towards the EU

Abstract

This article compares Basque and Catalan mobilization towards the EU over the period from 1992 to 2022. The contrasting trajectories of these regions are approached through the conceptual framework of ‘paradiplomacy’ and ‘protodiplomacy’. Building on a combination of primary and secondary sources, six explanatory variables are selected and the observed patterns compared across time. Both cases alternate between cooperation and benign neglect, becoming politically controversial only when the regions overtly express claims for self-determination; however, only the Catalan case involves a severe and lasting political conflict. Although the strategies are framed by the broader structures of opportunity imposed by the EU, our research shows that the most salient features of these contrasting trajectories are deeply rooted in the idiosyncrasies of the Spanish political system and individual leadership styles. These findings help us to understand the scope and limits of paradiplomacy in other settings in which the continuum between intergovernmental cooperation, conflict, and benign neglect has repercussions beyond state borders in the EU.